Introduction

Religion has an independent status with its purpose being to reinforce both individuals and societies. Islam in particular, which has a more direct relationship with social structures when compared to Christianity, has the functions of designing and guiding the structure of society, safeguarding the individual and transferring ideological and cultural values to society (Mardin, 1993, p.91). As such, Islam, having the above mentioned functions, is automatically integrated into worldly matters. As for the stand of Islam in Central Asian societies following the demise of the Soviet Union, we might say that Islam, the religion of the majority of the Central Asian people, has been trying to compensate for its negative past experience. In addition to this, with the demise of Soviet institutions and ideology and the persistence of economic crisis, Islam, even its fundamentalist variant, could well become a powerful political force in Central Asia, as disillusioned people cast about for a sense of direction (Menon and Barkey, 1993, p.72). In this article, the internal and external factors which pave the way for the development and reinforcement of radical Islam, which has become a real threat in Central Asia since the 1990s will be determined and explained.

The Internal Factors:
Economic Problems in the Region:

Central Asia's states are simultaneously suffering from three separate - though related - painful developments: the collapse of the command economy, with its highly interdependent system of production, trade and payments; sudden independence from Russia, the giant core of the system; and the continued dependence on Russia, which itself is gripped by economic and political crisis (Islam, 1994, p.157). These three negative factors, which are regarded by Shafiqul Islam as the factors which mainly cause economic deficiencies in these republics also lead to other negative results in the economic field. These may include: High inflation rates; declining living standards; shortcomings in liberal market economy structures and norms; lack of skilled staff in administration of the economy; insufficient manpower necessary for economic development; problematic money and banking system; slow privatisation; massive monopolisation of the economy; lack of capital; absence of consistent economic aid from industrialised countries since the industrialised countries refrain from investing in these republics assuming that they are located in politically and economically unstable and risky regions (Kona, 1999, p.89); insufficient transport lines; obstacles in importation; limited foreign exchange regulations etc. The prevailing problems in the economic field directly reflect themselves on domestic and foreign policy and social life, and make Islam a kind of spiritual shelter for the ones who suffer from these economic problems.

The Strong Will of Intervention of the Central Asian Leaders:

The authoritarian way of behaviour of the Central Asian leaders represents a contradiction with the Western idea of democracy. While the leaders emphasise the importance of democracy for their new republics, they continue with an authoritarian type leadership inherited from the Soviet Union. More or less, all the Central Asian republics seem to be administered in a similar pattern to the previous totalitarian communist regime (Gumpel, 1994, p.24).
The leaders of the Central Asian republics have given importance to the authoritarian way of leadership. By doing so, they try to both foster and extend the duration of their power. Following the dismantlement of the Soviet Union both nationalist interests and religious upheavals increased. It is evident that these tendencies are functional in two ways: On the one hand they present a kind of safeguard against any state who would threaten their national unity and on the other they create a kind of security umbrella against any social discontent or political diversity which would give harm to their national unity and political development. The political leaders of the Central Asian republics use authoritarianism to hold society together against external powers and probable internal conflict. This enables them to keep society under their control and they foster their leadership. Besides, it is not surprising that the Central Asian leaders willingly follow the authoritarian style of leadership in the former Soviet Union since both are intended to remove conflicts in society and help them remain in power for long years. The resulting intensive pressure, which when applied to society, the economy and politics reinforces the refusal of the generally accepted ideology and intensifies the will the people to fill the gap with Islamist ideology which is rather different in terms of quality.

Ethnic Disputes in the Region:

Moscow has designed the borders of the Central Asian republics arbitrarily and artificially and this has made the present republics ethnically heterogeneous. The borders of the republics have been changed about 90 times since 1921. While these changes secured the Soviet Union's unity, they made the republics ethnically fractious. Regardless, the Central Asian region has been in chaos in terms of ethnic disputes due to the lesser degree of urbanisation, priority of Islam above ethnic consciousness, the strong role of clan identity, a lack of political mobilisation, the prevailing nomad traditions, lack of any national heroes and history and the authoritarian rulers who try to suppress nationalists for the well being of their leadership (Kubicek, 1996, p.94). Consequently, as ethnic disputes facilitates the peoples of Central Asia to direct their attention toward Islamic motives, this in turn helps the Islamist groups benefit from this chaotic environment for their own profit.

Islam as a Mediator to Gain a Social Identity:

In general, religion has been regarded as a mediator for people who want to have a social identity. The peoples of Central Asia, who had lived with collective social identities for 70 years and who had left aside their Kazak, Turkmen, Kirghiz and Uzbek identities, have begun to feel the necessity and power of religion after the break up of the Soviet Union. Following their independence, Islam has started to be regarded as a value which fosters unique Kazak, Turkmen, Kirghiz and Uzbek identities in independent Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. Those peoples, who want to emphasise their own identities, would like to overvalue Islam through interpreting it as a distinguishing factor.

Islam as the Most Important Social Value in Traditional Societies:

As in all traditional societies in which cultural, religious and social symbols are appreciated more than material symbols, the status of religion is prestigious for the Central Asian states which reflect the features of a traditional structure. A strong tendency toward religious symbols and rituals in these societies has been regarded as a kind of resistance against the probability of losing the traditions.

Islam as a Distinguishing Factor:

Islam should also be regarded as a distinguishing factor in getting the Central Asian Muslim population to feel different from the majority Slav population in the Commonwealth of Independent States. People instinctively felt it was Islam which is not just a set of religious beliefs but a way of life and civilisation - that made them different from the Russians, whose rule they had never accepted as legitimate (Mirsky, 1992, p.334).

The External Factors:
Islam as a Constraining Symbol against the Extended Russian Role:

Furthermore, Islam has been regarded as a constraining symbol against the probable extended role of the Russian Federation by the Central Asian people. Today Islam may emerge as a barrier against the extended Russian role in Central Asia in as much as Islam is becoming a defining item of the political agenda (Peker, 1996, p.81).

Islam as an Overemphasised Social Value against Former Russian Policies:

The revival of Islam may also be based on the policies of the former Soviet Union related to any religion except Orthodoxy. During the Soviet period, Islam had been completely eliminated from public life: mosques, medreses and other religious establishments had disappeared dramatically. All aspects of religious life in the Soviet Union were kept under the strict control of the government, while the slightest manifestation of a national and religious consciousness among the non-Russian people was considered as flagrant nationalism and fundamentalism... in the minds of ordinary Russians, Islam had been associated with backwardness, fundamentalism and even terrorism. But, in spite of all of this, Islam is considered by its followers as a part of its national culture and as a way of life. This gives Islam special status, compared to other religions (Kadir, 1996, pp.48-49). The Soviet leaders regarded the Muslims as reactionaries who opposed progress at least in the Soviet Union (D'Encausse, 1992, p.17-51). So, according to the explanations given, it may be argued that the Muslim community, who were isolated from society and scorned during the Soviet period, want to practise their Islamic belief and emphasise Islam in society after the break up of the Soviet Union.

Russian Modernisation Realised in Central Asia:

The attempts to modernise politics and society realised during the period of Russian rule did not succeed in penetrating basic social structures and institutions. This development accelerated and facilitated Islam's integration with these structures and institutions, which would then succeed to keep traditionalism.

Ideological Gap Following Communism:

Unfortunately, the inability of administrations, which were not able to build up a new ideology following the disappearance of the communist ideology with the disintegration of the Soviet Union, resulted in the emergence of some radical structures and the adoption of some religious projects by the Central Asian peoples.

Power Rivalry in the Region:

As a result of the decrease in a Russian presence in the region, both international states such as the U.S., Japan, China and regional states such as Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, India, seeking geopolitical and geo-economic advantages, all started to take their places in this new great game. They all came with their own priorities and they all want to re-orientate the Central Asian republics according to their own preferences. These new Central Asian states, which are economically weak, politically immature and unstable and ethnically rather mixed, are liable to be directed or absorbed by these international or regional powers (Brzezinski, 1998, pp. 40-53). These attempts at re-orientation by the international and regional powers also prevent the Turkic republics in the region from developing their own internal and foreign policy principles by themselves. On the one hand, this annoys the nationalist and Islamist circles and causes social discontent and on the other, makes these republics dependent on external powers.

Conclusion

In order to safeguard political regimes in Central Asia from radical Islam, all the republics in the region need to reach almost the same level of development, socio-economic problems need to be resolved, the ruling party should stop its oppression of opposition parties, cooperation among regional states should be established, democratic norms and rules should be legitimate in society and politics, the ruling party should solve the prevailing problems by not employing an authoritarian approach but with tolerance. The most important in all of these efforts intended to eliminate radical Islamist movements in Central Asian republics is the reinforcement of a political culture, the determination of judicial norms and the development of dialogue in society and the establishment of democracy.

Dr. Gamze Güngörmüş Kona, Foreign Policy Analyst

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